physics

Electromagnetism explains how charge, motion, and fields interact through space. Electric and magnetic phenomena are not separate forces, but two aspects of a single field-based system governed by conservation, symmetry, and geometry.

Semiconductors enable control over electricity by embedding barriers, probabilities, and fields directly into matter. This explainer traces why semiconductors had to exist, how band theory and doping make control possible, why silicon and MOSFETs won, and why scaling is now failing.

Thermodynamics explains why energy, though conserved, inevitably degrades in usefulness. It defines the absolute limits of efficiency, the arrow of time, and the unavoidable cost of maintaining order in physical, biological, and computational systems.